Residential Schools

In 1891 there was an incident at the Battelford Industrial School in which a student, Lazarus Charles, was confined to some specially built cells in the basement and subsequently became ill and died after being taken home by his parents. This incident was yet another complaint leveled against the administration of Rev. Thomas Clarke, sparking a debate within the Department of Indian Affairs for power of authority in matters affecting Indian education. Since the Northwest/Riel Resistance in 1885, complaints were made regarding the access parents had to their children, the exploitation of student labor, Rev. Clarke's management of the school faculty, dietary concerns, and insufficient medical. These complaints eventually led to the dismissal of Rev. Clarke as principle of the school in 1894.

By the early 1890s Rev. Thomas Clarke was receiving criticism for his mismanagement of students and school staff, particularly women. He was also criticized for his lack of fiscal responsibility. Indian affairs found Clarke to be "dictatorial", and his management style caused as much trouble with the staff as it did with the local Indigenous communities from whom students originated. Hayter Reed reported that the students were not being sufficiently disciplined nor advancing appropriately in their English-speaking skills. The Anglican church, particularly the Archbishop of Saskatchewan and Calgary, were of the opinion that the school was inadequate in its religious instruction. Coupled with alcoholism, these issues led to Clarke being fired form the position of principle in 1894.

Following the North-West Resistance in 1885, the administration of Rev. Thomas Clarke was frequently criticized for the school's inadequate diet and lack of medical attention given to the students. Clarke attempted to deflect the blame for insufficient food onto the Department of Indian Affairs, claiming "there is not a meal without the children asking for more bread. In Spite of Macrae's orders, I have given it to them." Clarke rejected the complaints about the students receiving poor medical attention as untrue, reporting in 1887 that "the health of the boys had been very good except for common minor ailments." The Indian Agent at Carlton reported that the children’s parents frequently complained about their children’s treatment and the fact that the sick were not looked after properly. For example, children were insufficiently fed, poorly clothed, and dirty and were isolated and neglected in the sick ward when ill. They also said that the children were improperly supervised giving the older children opportunity to bully and mistreat the younger children. - These reports were substantiated by "Indians whom I have generally found worthy of credence.." according to the Indian Agent. These complaints, combined with a dwindling attendance rate and criticisms of his management of the school staff, led to Rev. Clarke being fired from his position as principle of the Battleford Industrial school in 1894.

Since the opening of the Battleford Industrial School in 1883, the school struggled to maintain the expected enrollment numbers. After the North-West Resistance in 1885, enrollment dropped even more meaning the school fell well short of the departmental expectations of 30 girls and 30 boys. Principal Clarke had suspicions that someone was advising the parents to not send their children to the school. It was not uncommon to find girls serving as maids in the principal’s house or for a family in town while they were supposed to be in school and any wages they made were appropriated by the school in addition to the child labor already used to supplement the school. The physical and structural damage that the school facilities suffered during the Resistance and a lack of supplies forced Rev. Clarke (the principal) to turn away some applications from parents who wished to enroll their children. Clarke was able to set up a temporary school and continue teaching in a make-shift school located on the western outskirts of town, but he was unable to enroll the sixty students expected by the department. By the late 1880s the relationship between the school and the local Indigenous communities had soured. When the question of Industrial Schools was brought up it was met with 'universal dissatisfaction' by both parents and children. Complaints leveled at the school included keeping children longer than originally agreed upon, the apparent exploitation of the student body, the inability of parents to remove their children from the school, as well as dietary and medical concerns for the students. In addition to these complaints, by 1890, Rev. Clarke, also came under criticism for his managing of the school staff and his administrative responsibilities. These issues resulted in Rev. Clarke being fired from his position as school principle in 1894.

Since the manifestation of 'manual labour schools' in the 1840s through the 1950s, a distinguishing feature of the residential school system was their use of the half-day system. This model was devised by the Methodist Cleric, and school superintendent for the future Ontario, Egerton Ryerson. The theory behind this system was that half the day should be dedicated to curriculum studies and the other half should be spent learning trades, such as farming, blacksmithing and other skills deemed useful to Euro-Canadian economy. The objective of this system was "to give a plain English education adapted to the working farmer and mechanic," while also allowing the schools to be self-sufficient after a few years "with judicious management."

Chief Foremost Man and the Nakaneet First Nation (Cree) signed Treaty 4 on September 15, 1874. However, the band refused to leave the Cypress Hills area with others who were forcibly removed in 1883, and remained in the area living without a reserve and the benefits of annuities and other Treaty rights. Foremost Man was not averse to living on a reserve; but if the government insisted that he settle on a reserve he wanted it to be in the Cypress Hills area.----------------------- However, the government did not want Indian reserves south of the Canadian Pacific Railway because it was worried about cross-border conflicts between different bands. Other policies which limited movement of Indigenous people as it relates to Canada-America border crossings suggests Canadian officials feared conflict and collusion with American Indians. A more recent interpretation suggests that Canadian authorities were concerned about the potential danger of a concentration of Cree on adjacent reserves in the Cypress Hills, as this would create an Indian territory in which the residents would be difficult to control. ------------------------ After Foremost Man's death in 1897, the band, now led by Chief Crooked Legs, pursued Foremost Man's dream of a reserve in the Hills, eventually hiring a lawyer to promote their cause. The Government conceded in 1913, granting a small reserve at Maple Creek. Still, it was not until 1975 that the Government agreed to pay them their treaty benefits.

After returning to power in 1878 the Conservative government employed Nicholas Flood Davin to examine the American Residential Schools system, as well as some Aboriginal schools in Canada to advise the government in the creation of a school system for the Northwest Territories. Davin visited with leaders from the Five Civilized Nations during a visit in Washington. He also visited the White Earth Agency in Minnesota. Using the example of these groups, he created a list of thirteen recommendations for the implementation of industrial boarding schools in the Northwest Territories. The recommendations were: 1. Wherever mission schools exist already, they should be used as industrial boarding schools through the establishment of a contract between the church group and the government. 2. No more than four industrial boarding schools should be established at first. 3. Industrial boarding schools should be established both in the North and the South of Saskatchewan. One should be established near Prince Albert in connection with the Episcopalian Church. 4. A school should be established at the Old Bow Fort in connection with the Methodist Church. 5. Qu'Appelle would be a suitable place for the establishment of a school, which could be associated with the Roman Catholic Church. 6. A school should be established at Riding Mountain with the Presbyterian Church. The importance of schools associated with religion denomination was judged to be obvious, as the first step of "civilizing" Indigenous people was to rid them of their faith. 7. A distinction should be made between parents who sent their children to school regularly, those who were ambivalent to them going, and those who refused to let them go. Those in the first group should be given a material reward, like increased food rations. 8. "Where practicable some inducement of a [moral?] nature should be held out to the child." 9. As bands come to accept education and civilization, school should become compulsory. 10. The moral and intellectual character of teachers is vitally important. Because the moral character of teachers is arguably more important than their intellect, missionaries are ideal candidates for this job because they have the enthusiasm of their religious convictions driving their morals. 11. In order to ensure the quality of the education being offered, schools should regularly be subject to inspections. 12. Special advantages and opportunities should be particularly promising students, who should be trained as teachers and clerks for the Department of Indian Affairs. 13. A teacher's salary should be enough to draw good men to the work. Teachers should be paid according to his qualifications.

A 1906 amendment to the Indian Act, put in place under the Laurier government, allowed the government to distribute immediately to band members up to 50% of the purchase price of land, rather than the previous 10%. The rest was to be held in trust in a capital account for the band in question. The Indian Advancement Act was incorporated as Part II of the Indian Act. In regards to distribution of moneys owed from sale of lands, Section 70 of the Indian Act was amended to read: "The Governor in Council may...direct how, and in what manner, and by whom, the moneys arising from the disposal of Indian lands, or of property held or to be held in trust for Indians...or from any other source for the benefit of Indians...shall be invested from time to time, and how the payments or assistance to which the Indians are entitled shall be made or given; and he may provide for the general management of such moneys, and direct what percentage or proportion thereof shall be set apart, from time to time, to cover the cost of and incidental to the management of reserves, lands, property and moneys under the provisions of this Act, and may authorize and direct the expenditure of such moneys for surveys, for compensation to Indians for improvements or any interest they have in lands taken from them, for the construction or repairs of roads, bridges, ditches and watercourses on such reserves or lands, for the construction and repair of school buildings and charitable institutions, and by way of contribution to schools attended by such Indians."

Commissioner Dewdney reported to Ottawa that a student named 'Calah' had died at the Battleford Industrial School on May 26,1884 from injuries sustained prior to enrollment. In response, Rev. Clarke suggested that that all students should be examined by a doctor before enrollment. This idea was favored by Commissioner Dewdney who forwarded the recommendation on to Ottawa. On January 23, 1885 authorization was given by Ottawa to implement Clarke's suggestion.

In 1884 Inspector T.P. Wadsworth reported that the classroom "was a large cheerless room." In addition, he recommended that the school should be supplied with iron desks and assorted teaching materials (maps, lesson cards, library books, and library equipment). He also suggested that white servants should be employed at the school to prevent the passing of messages between the students and the aboriginal community. Following Inspector Wadsworth's report, Rev. Clarke wrote a letter to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Edgar Dewdney, which laid out a number of improvements to the facilities and services that he felt should be made. Commissioner Dewdney forwarded these recommendations to Ottawa for approval but received no immediate reply to authorize the improvements.