Integration & Mobility

In 1851, a treaty was signed between the Dakota and the American government that stipulated that they would be provided for during the following fifty years. The Treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, as they were named, also forced the Dakota to cede all remaining lands in Minnesota and a small part of South Dakota. Historical accounts suggest the american government failed to deliver promised food, goods and payment for land transfer to the Dakota bands in 1862, thus breaching treaty promises. The Minnesota Massacre, also known as the Dakota War of 1862, was an armed conflict between the United States and several bands of Dakota. Following settler encroachment on Dakota lands near the Minnesota river, as well as broken treaty promises, tensions arose and attacks were committed against settler communities, with the american military eventually retaliating against the Dakota bands. The conflict ended with the hanging of 38 Dakota men on December 26, 1862, making it the largest mass execution in american history. Thousands of Dakota fleeing the violence crossed the border into Canada. Oral history accounts suggest that at the time, bounties were potentially being offered for Dakota who were suspected of having participated in the Minnesota Massacre. It is possible americans travelled to Canada and deliberately poisoned Dakota members living there in retaliation for their participation in the Minnesota Massacre. Please see the Robert Goodvoice interview, pages 5-9, for further information.---------------- In 1876, a group of Dakota led by Chiefs Whitecap and Medicine Bear requested that they be granted reserves in British territory, but were refused by government officials on the grounds that they had already signed a treaty with the United States. However, this treaty had been nullified following the Minnesota Massacre. In fact, in 1863 the Lincoln government expelled the Dakota from Minnesota to Nebraska and South Dakota, and their reserves were abolished. Oral history accounts suggest the government of the United States subsequently offered the Dakota who had fled to Canada following the Minnesota Massacre an amnesty. The amnesty was intended to encourage them to return to the United States. They were told that those who returned would receive a quarter section per adult and eighty acres per child. Only one person, Wasoomacanow, returned to the US and received his land. The offer of amnesty for returning Dakota following the Minnesota Massacre was open for ten years.

In order to discourage Indigenous people on either side of the Canadian/American border from crossing freely, the Macdonald government introduced a policy of resettling Aboriginal people north of the Canadian Pacific Railway.

A 10880 km reserve was surveyed for the Star Blanket band north of the Qu'Appelle River near Crooked Lake.

Under the CCF provincial government, it became common practice to remove children from homes in northern communities, which were primarily Indigenous, and place them with southern non-Indigenous families. Non-Indigenous child placements in the southern part of the province were deemed necessary because of a relatively small number of foster homes in the north - a number which was unable to manage the capacity of child welfare activity. The Department of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation recognized the need for staff training and increased capacity for accommodations. The isolated location of many northern communities also caused administrative difficulties.

The winter of 1877-1878, also known as the 'Black Winter' was a particularly difficult time frame within a decade of malnourishment, famine, violence, and disease. Drought and prairie fires, combined with the decline of buffalo on the Plains resulted in a large scale food crisis. This food crisis was met with indifference and exploitation by government officials. Rations were used as a way of coercing Indigenous peoples into treaty agreements and to undermine attempts of Indigenous resistance.

Minnesota was granted statehood in 1858 resulting in a population explosion, railway development, and an 'Indian War.' Inter-ethnic tensions erupted into violence, particularly between the Lakota and Dakota nations, and the European settlers resulting in the deaths of 500 settlers.

In 1895, the One Arrow Band requested that their children be sent to the Duck Lake/St. Michael's Boarding School. Previously, the One Arrow Band refused to send their children to any boarding schools. However, they had been warned by the local Indian Agent that if they didn't send their children to any school they would be taken by force and sent wherever the Department wished.

During her time at Gordon Indian Residence from 1959-1964, Geraldine Sanderson recalls that "every once in a while students would run away." Geraldine recalls that travelling from James Smith Reserve to the Gordon Residence required over three hours by bus. Because of the distance, runaways students rarely made it home before being apprehended and punished. Punishment varied according to gender. For example, she recalls one boy being forced to remove his pants in front of students, after which he received 10-15 lashes from the principal with a leather strap. Girls often had their heads shaved.

During the Great Depression many Metis peoples from the Southern Branch began to move into Prince Albert, live for a year and then apply for relief.

Following the Red River Resistance and the Manitoba Act’s passing a wave of new settlers from Eastern Canada arrived in Manitoba. These individuals were largely English Protestant and were linguistically and religiously intolerant. The French Metis experienced violence and a general disregard for their land rights.